Zimbabwean Traditional Dancing

Traditional Significance of Dance

Music and dance are an integral part of traditional African societies, and Zimbabwe is no exception. Children hear their traditional rhythms and songs from the moment of birth, starting with the lullabies sung by their mothers, and they are immersed in traditional music as their mothers work and socialise – and dance.

Zimbabwean dances traditionally performed for three main functions – religious, griotic and ceremonial.

The first, and broadest category, is ritualistic and embodies traditional spirituality and religion. This category includes the most ancient traditional dances and traditional beliefs surrounding peace, health, prosperity, good harvests and a healthy relationship with ancestral spirits. Religious dances often involved spirit mediums, performing as both the spirits and those who seek to placate them.  The dancing can be part of a ritual of spirit possession which can last for twelve hours, or even for days. (Time is a very important aspect of these dances because the dancer must have time to enter the spirit world of possession and re-enter the material world at the appropriate time.) This type of dance is not a performance in the ordinary Western sense. Spirituality is an important element in Zimbabwean dance and as a means of expressing spirituality. For this reason some evangelical churches in Zimbabwe even incorporate dancing into their worship.

The second function of traditional African dance is griotic, in other words a type of dance that tells a story. (The term comes from “griot” a traditional storyteller in West Africa). Griotic dances are specifically used to signify oral history using storytelling, music, and praise songs to describe important historical events or myths.

The third type of dance is social, ceremonial or commemorative. These dances are performed at ceremonies such as weddings, induction of chiefs, successful harvests, and rites of passage from childhood to adulthood or passing over into death. They are now often performed during political celebrations.

In general dance had (and still has) many functions in traditional society, such as:

• Enjoyment or entertainment,
• Providing a rhythm and encouragement for communal work parties,
• Celebration of any sort,
• Supporting rituals including spirit possession
• Connection with the ancestors
• Re-creating history and teaching history, 
• As an art form,
• As a means of courting
• Supporting funeral proceedings

Many dances did not have only one purpose, but more like a primary purpose blended with several secondary purposes. 

Zimbabwean traditional dances are a community activity performed in large groups, particularly in the rural areas (where a high proportion of Zimbabwe’s population lives). The dances involve significant interaction between dancers and onlookers and often invite spectators to be part of the performance. In fact, there are rarely spectators because community members either sing, play an instrument, or dance along. Even ritual dances often have a time when spectators participate.

Although dances may appear spontaneous, traditionally they are strictly choreographed. Improvisation is limited as it places the focus on the individual over the group. The traditional purpose of the dance was a collective expressing the values and desires of the community more than that of individuals.

Dances were particularly important at funerals where the dance is used to usher the dead out of this world and into the ancestral spirit world from where they may be called upon in future rituals.

Community structures such as kinship, age, and political status are often reinforced as well as cultural beliefs about gender roles. Dances are usually segregated by gender. (The kind of close couple dancing popular in the West was thought to be immoral or in poor taste in many traditional African societies.)

Modern Uses of Traditional Dance

The traditional purposes for many dances have changed but the importance of the dances has remained. The dance may contain the same movements but since the context has changed, the dance is often no longer considered strictly traditional and is often only “traditional-like” or “neo-traditional”. For this reason, dances reflect and chronicle cultural changes. It is now conventional for Zimbabweans to dance for important people, for example, on the tarmac at the airport at the arrival of Government officials.

The Zimbabwe National Traditional Dance Association (ZNTDA) and other cultural institutions organize various events that celebrate the country’s traditional dances, including the Jerusarema Dance Festival, the Chibuku Road to Fame, Neshamwari Traditional Dance Festival and the Murewa-Uzumba Cultural Festival (Mucuf). Traditional dance is also taught in most primary and secondary schools across the country.

Rhythm

Rhythm is an important aspect of Zimbabwean traditional dances. Like most African dances, Zimbabwean dances employ polyrhythm – the simultaneous use of two or more rhythms that are not readily perceived as deriving from one another, or as simple manifestations of the same meter. The rhythmic strands may be the basis of an entire piece of music (called “cross-rhythm”).

Dance Technique and Movement

Dancers may synchronize the movements of different body parts to different rhythms, or alternate fluidly between rhythms. Very complex movements are possible even though the body does not necessarily move far through space.There is a sort of downward, earth-bound orientation to all Zimbabwean dances. The knees are often flexed, or soft, and there are flat-footed, shuffling movements of the feet between periods of vigorous leaping and twirling. Other elements include isolations of one part of the body being used while the rest is held still, angularity (with the body bent at the waist), asymmetry, improvisation, a swinging quality, and movements outward from the hip.

Instruments and Accompaniment

Traditional dances are for the most part accompanied by traditional instruments.

Drums (Ngoma)

Probably the most common instrument accompanying traditional dancing is the drum. The topic of traditional drums deserves an entire post of its own because there is so much to be said about the variations of size, shape and construction and methods of playing as well as the associations with different tribal groups in Zimbabwe. Large drums are made out of the mutiti tree (erythrina abyssinia) or the mutsvanzwa tree (pseodolanchnostylisis maprouneifolia

Mbira (or “thumb piano”)

The mbira, and consequently the mbira dance, has been around for a long time. Archaeological digs have uncovered mbiras dating from the twelfth century.

The mbira is widely used as an instrument in traditional Zimbabwean music. It is plucked with the fingers to produce the melody. It is often enclosed in a large, halved calabash gourd (called a deze) to give the sound resonance and loosely attached bottle caps or shells are attached to it to add a buzzing percussive element.

Traditionally the mbira was only used for spiritual purposes during religious rituals by spirit mediums seeking to communicate with ancestral spirits and it would be sacrilegious to use it for general social purposes. There is now a strong tradition of younger urban people playing mbiras for non-spiritual purposes.

Hand-held rattles or shakers (Hosho) 

Another common accompaniment to traditional dancing is the hand-held rattle or shaker, traditionally made from traditional gourds or seed pods filled with dried seeds. Modern plastic equivalents have developed.

Leg rattles (Magavhu or magagada)

A variation on the hand-held rattle is rattles attached to the legs so that the rhythm of the dancer’s movements is reflected in sound.

Wooden clappers (maja or manja)

These are made from hardwood trees like the mutara tree (gardenia spaturiflora) chosen for the strength of their wood to withstand the impact of constant clapping on the wood

Clapping, singing or vocalising, whistling or ululating

Most traditional dancing is automatically part and parcel of traditional songs and rhythms reinforced by clapping.

Costume

 Another important aspect of traditional dance is the clothing and headgear. Traditionally dancers wore shashiko and mhapa made from animal skins. These were made from the skins of leopards, monkeys, cheetahs and wild cats whose leather is flexible, comfortable to wear and easy to work. The skins of domestic animals like cattle, goats and sheep were sometimes used but considered poorer quality than garments made from wild animal skins. These skin garments have been largely replaced now by cloth versions and modern dance competitions pay a great deal of attention to the “uniforms” of the dancers. Another important part of the costumes (particularly for men) is headdresses (ngundu) often also made from animal hide and decorated with ostrich or guineafowl feathers.

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Below are some notes on a selection of the more prominent traditional dances performed in Zimbabwe. 

Amabhiza or Hosa/Wosa

Amabhiza is a Kalanga dance developed in the Plumtree area. Its original purpose was spiritual and ritualistic, performed during rain making ceremonies to appease the spirits and achieve a good harvest. Traditionally it was danced barefoot, wearing skirts made of skin, hats made of monkey skin, and legs decorated with ostrich feathers and leg rattles made of caterpillar skins. The dancers traditionally hold a horse’s tail (itshoba). Now Amabhiza is a celebratory dance after harvest, when inducting a chief, at wedding ceremonies, for entertainment and at funerals/memorials. It has become a way to celebrate and preserve the Ndebele heritage and provides a platform for the community to come together and showcase their rich cultural traditions. The dance is characterised by galloping steps.

Amajukwa enjelele 

Amajukwa  is another Kalanga dance from the Plumtree area. Ijukwa refers to the name of a hunting spirit. There was a strong belief that a person possessed by this spirit could turn into a lion and harm whoever becomes too inquisitive. Traditionally the dance was performed in the winter or early summer at night. (Nowadays there is no fixed time for the performance.) 

After a time without rain people gathered under a tree known as uMtolo to ask for rain for a whole day, from morning till sunset. It was believed that the rain would come during or just after the ceremony. If the rain still failed to arrive then the whole community went into eNjele (injelele) a major traditional rainmaking ceremony held during drought seasons. Various dances were performed, with Amajukwa dominating the ceremony.

Drums dominate this dance, varying in size and decoration. The most important drum is Ndandadanda which is played only by the one who is possessed. The dancers wear black “skirts” called imisisi and black beads The dance starts at an easy walking pace but the drumming intensifies as the as the dance moves towards its climax. Dancers chant, rhythmical rattling of leg rattles and clap an accompaniment.  

Chinyambera (or Chinyambela)

Chinyambera is a Karanga ritualistic hunting dance, originally from of the Duma people of the Bikita area.

Dinhe

 The Dinhe originated among the the Korekore ethnic group in Mashonaland Central in northern Zimbabwe. The Dinhe is a dance performed at religious rites and ceremonies, to celebrate the harvest, honour ancestors, and ask for their guidance. The Dinhe dance uses different songs to accompany the dance, and the mood of the song indicates which spirits are being conjured.

Ingquzu

Ingquzu is an Ndebele dance from the Nkayi area (believed to be originally a Zulu dance, brought to this part of the world by the Ndebele). The dance can be performed at any time of the year at happy occasions, weddings, birth of a child, school prize givings and new moon. It is largely a male dance with youths performing great feats of energetic jumping while women sing and clap. The costume includes pads tied round ankles and calves to protect the legs and  to make a booming sound. Originally these pads were of leather stuffed with feathers. Now they are made of cloth and elastic.

Isishikitsha   

Another important Ndebele dance is Isitshikitsha, a ceremonial dance, historically performed for the King’s pleasure. It is now a commemorative dance performed by the Ndebele community as entertainment during celebrations such as weddings, food harvests, school prize givings and victory celebrations. The characteristic movement of the dance is to raise the foot knee-high and stamp it on the ground. The dance is accompanied by singing, clapping, ululation and whistling.                              

Jerusarema (originally/traditionally called Mbende)

Jersusema/Mbende is one of the most outstanding cultural expressions that are still practiced in the Murehwa district in the Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe. The dance has been passed down through many generations and has been adopted by other Shona and non-Shona groups, urban-based dance clubs and traditional performing groups, and performed for tourists, political gatherings and other social events.

Jerusarema/Mbende is believed to have originated as a war dance and diversionary tactic by the Shona especially during the military raids by the Ndebele warriors on parts of Mashonaland during the Mfecane wars of the 1830s. It has been used down generations as a hunting dance, fertility dance and funeral dance.  In modern Zimbabwe, Jerusarema can be performed at funerals, weddings, festivals, celebrations, political gatherings and recreational competitions.

Some commentators say that the original name, Mbende, is the name of a burrowing and fast-running mouse and refers to the mouse’s mating pattern and others say it refers to a mole, which was regarded as a symbol of fertility, sexuality and family. In the course of the dance, men often crouch while jerking both arms and vigorously kicking the ground with the right leg in imitation of burrowing and kicking soil to the surface.

Traditionally the dance was performed at night by men and women of marrying age. Dancers come forward from the general line in pairs and the dance is basically an exhibition of sexual prowess in which the women show their flexibility while the men show their strength and challenge each other to a contest characterised by sensual, acrobatic waist-shaking and hip movements. The pair of dancers end their performance with energetic thrusts of the pelvis directed towards each other. It is such movements which made the dance unpopular among the missionaries as sexually explicit and suggestive and it was banned as early as 1910. This banning necessitated the change of name to the pseudo-Christian name Jerusarema and taking away the extremes of the offending movements. With increasing urbanization from the 1920s onwards it was often performed for recreation in the township bars and beer halls.

The drum, mutumba, is the most conspicuous instrument.  Usually two drums are used, though skilled master-drummers can use more drums simultaneously. Mbende is characterised by its vibrant drumming and the Mbende drum occupies a central role in the dance sequence. So important was the drum that, according to oral information, every chief and village head was expected to keep a pair of drums that would be made available on request to villagers, making the chief an important custodian and protector of the performance.

The hugely experienced and renowned master drummers are usually male. The common practice is that men do drumming while women contribute to the sound with hand-held and leg rattles, woodblock clappers, handclapping, yodelling and blowing whistles (traditionally made from reeds). The combination produces a polyrhythmic sound that drives the dance movements.

As mentioned above costumes were traditionally made from animal skin. Now they the costumes are usually uniforms with blue skirts with white stripes for all. Part of the costume is mbikiza or madhumbu made of thin strips of flexible animal skin that fly out around the dancer’s body and complement the dance movements.

Cultural recognition through UNESCO

Jerusarema/Mbende in Zimbabwe is one dance that has withstood the test of time and western influence. It is an important cultural expression which in 2005 was listed on the UNESCO Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible heritage of humanity list, making it one of the few African cultural expressions accorded such recognition.

Mbakumba

Mbakumba is a Karanga dance from the Gutu area of Masvingo that resembles Shangara in its emphasis on fast footwork. The Mbakumba dance is a polyrhythmic dance that was commemorative and for entertainment at social gatherings after harvest and when moon was full and high (jenaguru) and during marriage ceremonies in celebration of the joy that comes from marriage. It celebrates the values of the community and captures the vibrancy of life for a rural people. The dance retains its traditional purposes but now also embraces politico-cultural purposes and is often performed on state occasions.

The dancers carry animal tails and a small axe, which they swing round in the course of the dance. The accompaniment requires at least two drums, a big mutumba and a small one. Some Karanga events employ as many as six drums.

Mbira

The Mbira dance is usually performed by community elders at important ancestral ceremonies such as the Bira and is perhaps the most religious of all Shona dances. The dance is accompanied by music made on the Mbira and used by a spirit medium to invite ancestral spirits into the midst of the community and communicate with the people. The Mbira dance is regarded as unique for its intricate foot movements, graceful pauses and high-energy jump bursts. While the Mbira dance is performed in communities with others, it can also nowadays be a solo dance for purposes of entertainment and building physical strength

Mhande

The Mhande style of dance was originally part of ritualistic rainmaking and hunting ceremonies of appeasement or thanksgiving associated with the Karanga of Masvingo Province. Mhande is performed for the mutoro ceremony, the annual rain ritual of the Karanga and is part of the ritual context or spirituality (known as chikaranga). It consists of distinctive songs and rhythms used for communicating with the majukwa rain spirits. It is characterized by distinct rhythms and melodies, slow and dignified foot movements and the use of handheld objects and substances such as snuff and ceremonial beer and knobkerries, which symbolize interaction between the community and the ancestors. The Mhande dance is commonly performed at the popular Shona kurova guva ceremony, to welcome the return of a deceased family member’s spirit (known as mudzimu).

The original style of the dance imitates a mermaid coming out of water to bring people rain and dancers do not lift their legs when dancing as if they are wading in water. Traditionally dancers wore animal skins around their waists. Men wear the ngundu leopard skin hat decorated with guineafowl feathers. Women black & white cloths tied around the body. Mutandarikwa drums are played by two or three people.

Muchongoyo or Mushongoyo

Mushongoyo does not have particular religious connotations and is a typical Nguni war-dance, now established among the Ndau people of Zimbabwe’s Chipinge, Chimanimani, Chiredzi, and Buhera districts,. It was traditionally performed in preparation for war and after war and also used as a military training exercise. The signature movement is stamping, and dramatic gestures, characteristically performed with a stick and a shield. The muchongoyo dance is a social and recreational dance historically performed by men, with women participating by creating the music. The dance is performed for celebratory purposes or events of cultural significance such as burials of chief and royals. These days it is often seen in a dance competitions.

Ngororombe or Nyanga or “Pan-pipe dance”

Ngororombe (or ngololombe as it is written in Chewa) is a general name for panpipes in southern Malawi, central Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe, while nyanga strictly means ‘horns’. It is a commemorative drum and dance routine dance emphasising athletic skills with great vigour, plenty of leg tension, twisting and jumps onto both feet. The songs that accompany the Mbakumba-like drum pattern are a mixture of Shona, Chewa, Nyungwe and a little Portuguese.

Shangara  

The dance normally called Shangara is “Shangara of the Zezeru” from Domboshava in the Goromonzi District. This is a drumless tap dance accompanied by clapping and voices and serious tap dancing. Traditionally it was mixed with mbira and gondiya drum patterns causing an association of ideas between Shangara and Mbira. The Mbakumba, described above, is Shangara of the Karanga. The Zimbabwe National Dance Company of the late 1970s to 80s came up with the name Mbakumba because the leaders thought mbira dance was repetitive and that the Domboshava Shangara lacked instrumentation. The other difference between the modern commercialised Shangara and the ancient Domboshava Shangara is that the steps of two or three dancers would seldom be identical and the result was a poly-rhythmical complex of steps, clapping and singing voices.

The dance used to be used solely for happy occasions, for celebration and ceremonial purposes but these days is diffusing into funerals and memorial events.                     

 Dancers wear mbikiza strips, head gear & no shoes. Mbira, drums, shakers, clappers, and magavhu (leg rattles) are the instruments.

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In conclusion, traditional dancing in Zimbabwe is a vibrant and dynamic expression of cultural identity, community, and history. Through its diverse styles and forms, such as Mbira, Jerusarema, and Muchongoyo, Zimbabwean traditional dance embodies the country’s rich cultural heritage and continues to play a vital role in social cohesion, storytelling, and spiritual expression, transcending generations, ethnicities, and geographical boundaries. By embracing and honouring these traditional dances, we can gain a deeper understanding of Zimbabwe’s complex history, foster cross-cultural exchange, and ensure the continuation of this precious cultural legacy for future generations.

SOURCES

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• “Traditional dances under threat”, The Herald, April, 2016 

https://www.herald.co.zw › traditional-dances-under-threat

• Mujuru, Emmanuel, “Muchongoyo Dance of Zimbabwe”, https://www.pinterest.com/pin/traditional-dances-of-zimbabwe

• Sibanda, Haleluja, The Challenges of Teaching Traditional Dance in Four Gweru Urban Former group ‘A’ Primary Schools. (A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the B.Sc. Honours Degree in Music and Musicology) Midlands State University, June 2015. https://cris.library.msu.ac.zw/bitstream/11408/2248/1/Sibanda.pdf
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